CATALOGUE OF G-TOWN ITEMS

G-TOWN CATALOGUE

ADD WATER OR NOT?

 SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF HOW WATER DEVELOPS YOUR DRAM

Whisky is a complex and nuanced drink that has developed over centuries and is rich in flavour and aroma. One of the most common questions that whisky enthusiasts ask is whether adding water to their dram is a good idea or not. The answer is not a simple yes or no: There is a scientific rationale behind the story.

Whisky fans are possibly the most particular spirit drinkers in the world. Debates have raged over the right way to consume whisky, with mixers or ice being either wholeheartedly welcomed or vehemently rejected by aficionados everywhere.

Water is a crucial ingredient in the whisky-making process. It is used to dilute the whisky from its cask strength, which can be as high as 70% ABV, to the desired bottling strength. Additionally, water is added during the mashing and fermentation process to create the wort, which is then distilled into whisky. The type of water used can also affect the flavour of the whisky. For example, water from peaty sources can impart a smoky flavour to the final product.

However, if you’re not drinking neat, the most commonly agreed upon method of enjoying whisky is with water. It’s long been known that adding water to a dram can open up the whisky to reveal new aromas and flavours. A recent study has now determined the optimal whisky to water ratio for drinkers.

The choice of water is crucial. Filtered or bottled water will ensure purity. You might have great tap water, but most people can’t know what’s in their supply. Tap water can contain chemicals that interfere with the whisky’s profile. Soft water is often recommended, as it can enhance the whisky’s subtle notes without overpowering them.

Room temperature water is typically best for diluting whisky. Cold water can numb your palate, obscuring the whisky’s complexity. Hot water would be even more disruptive and frankly, would be just plain weird.

Using a jug or pipette allows for precise control. A pipette is ideal for adding just a few drops, perfect for gradual adjustments without risking over-dilution. A jug is handy for measuring small amounts, especially when sharing or tasting multiple drams. These tools add a level of control that enhances your tasting experience, letting you focus on the evolving flavours with each sip.

Washington State University has conducted a two pronged experiment. Firstly, they studied the chemical composition of the headspace (the area between the top of the liquid and the top of the glass) in a range of different whiskies - including both single malt and blended Scotch, Irish whiskey, and American ryes and bourbons -, and then analysed the differences that occurred during dilution.

The second element of the study featured a trained panel of 20 experts assessing the aromas of six different whiskies as they were diluted. These whiskies were three Scotch whiskies and, because the experiment was conducted in the USA, three bourbons.

Undiluted, the experts were easily able to distinguish between the whiskies in the two categories, and this continued up to around 20% dilution. In this zero to 20% water range it was noted how the aromas of all six whiskies changed.

Interestingly, 20% seemed to be the maximum dilution level that had this benefit; any more than this, then the differences became less pronounced. By the time the spirits reached a 60:40 whisky-water ratio, the panelists were unable to distinguish between the various whiskies in each category, although they could still determine a difference between the Scotch and the bourbon.

In terms of flavour, the panel noted that the Scotch whiskies started off with a distinctly peaty and smoky aroma initially which subsided with dilution to reveal notes of pome fruits. The scientific analysis of the headspace went some way to explaining this.

Whisky is composed of chemical compounds that are either hydrophilic or hydrophobic, meaning attracted to or repelled by water. Adding water to whisky will in essence release these hydrophobic compounds into the headspace in the glass. Acetic acids contained within whisky are known for their ripe fruit aromas and are hydrophobic, explaining why the experts noticed sweeter, fruity aromas after dilution.

Compounds run from hydrophilic to hydrophobic on a scale, so adding different volumes of water will release different compounds and therefore reveal different aromas. Because the senses of smell and taste are so closely related, the researchers conclude that dilution will affect a whisky’s flavour as well as its aroma to a similar degree.

Those behind the study hope that their findings will help whisky makers better understand what their customers’ whisky drinking experience, particularly with water or ice, and also aim to explore reasons behind drinking trends.

For example, their research backs up the reason why serving whisky with a single large ice cube (rather than multiple smaller cubes) has become increasingly popular. Large cubes melt slower and therefore dilute the whisky less quickly, so drinkers can then enjoy their chosen whisky at a cooler temperature before it becomes too diluted. The research is still ongoing, and the researchers hope to reveal more of their work later this year.

Of course, the findings from this study probably won’t come as too much of a surprise to most whisky drinkers. At some point we’ve all experienced how an otherwise uninspiring dram can flourish with just the lightest hint of dilution, or gone the other way and accidentally killed a whisky by adding a little too much water.

Another study asked a panel of trained whisky connoisseurs to test 25 samples of bourbon, rye, single-malt and blended Scotches and Irish whiskies at various dilution levels — 100 per cent whisky, 90 per cent whisky and 10 per cent water, 80 per cent whisky and 20 per cent water, 70 per cent whisky and 30 per cent water, 60 per cent whisky and 40 per cent water, and 50 per cent whisky and 50 per cent water.

As it turned out, the panel decreed that the whisky varieties began to merge at a point starting at 80 per cent whisky and 20 per cent water as the non-hydrophilic molecules were pushed aside and crowded out. Simply put, the 80-20 whisky to water ratio hit the sweet spot, considering that a higher water percentage diluted the distinct flavours of the liquid and made all the different variants taste similar. Fixing up a drink with a water percentage lower than 20 retained its distinct aroma, properties and compositions.

ADDENDUM

Rachel Barrie, when Master Blender at Bowmore Distillery and Camper English, a cocktails and spirits writer, have argued that their experiments have showed that water drawn from the same region in which a whisky was produced seemed to bring out the specific taste qualities associated with that particular whisky. Barrie, who has a chemistry background, including a stint as a research scientist at the Scotch Whisky Research Institute, has documented the following visual and sensory changes that can be observed when water is added to whisky.

• Firstly, something called 'viscimetric whorls' develop - these occur when liquids of differing viscosities are mixed and can be seen as the water penetrates and mixes with the whisky.
• As the alcohol and water combine an exothermic reaction takes place.  This sees the temperature of the whisky rise by around 2ºC and allows it to release more aroma.  It also reduces the strength of alcohol and allows the sense of smell to work better.
• The lowering of alcohol strength gives a cooling effect on the palate and heightens the receptiveness of the tongue, particularly in the salty and fruity spectrum.  It also dampens flavours in the spicy and sweet spectrum.

Nevertheless, it’s interesting that there’s scientific evidence of where the dilution limit lies.

ASSESSING SCOTCH WHISKY

 EVALUATING A SCOTCH WHISKY

PRELIMINARIES

Scotch whisky, a timeless spirit steeped in tradition and complexity, offers a sensory journey like no other. To truly appreciate its depth and variety, one must approach tasting with reverence, enthusiasm and the exercise of patience. Whether you're a seasoned aficionado or a curious newcomer, understanding how to properly taste and evaluate Scotch whisky can transform your experience from mere drinking to an art form.

At the end of the day, the quality of a whisky is reflected in its volume of sales in the common market. Evidently, buyers look for their own pre-defined parameters. Leaving the budget aside, how else does a buyer judge the whisky he wishes to buy? It obviously starts from the marketing campaign, but that is only a pointer. The buyer first looks, by default, at the packaging and presentation of a whisky, whether all necessary details are printed on the label leaving no doubts about its integrity. He then looks at the colour and strength, having bought it, goes on to check it out.

A whisky is reviewed by assessing its appearance (colour), aroma (nose), taste (palate), and finish (aftertaste), locating specific notes, complexity, balance, and overall quality.

The colour is checked for two aspects; whether E150A Caramel colouring additive has been used or whether it shows chill-filtration. The former is easy to assess. The latter requires some time. Good indicators are its strength, generally 46% ABV or more and the appearance of micelles, i.e., the appearance in that glass of whitish strains floating in the whisky after a drop of water is added. The label should state both and prominently so.

But then, how would you check the areas that require the use of your olfactory sensory organs? The nose gives you the aroma, the mouth the taste, the gullet its smoothness and the sensations as it slides down to the stomach its finish. Actually, a discreet burp would reveal the finish and confirm the taste.

You are your own best judge. Very few people may use the same terminology-after all, they are different human beings with differing ideas and actual of aroma, taste and finish. If you described the aromas of a particular whisky to a friend, you may consider them to be legitimate notes, but what do memories, metaphors and variables mean to others? What is the meaning of “a classic Speysider or a classic Islay?” How effective is it to communicate taste by region alone when there are many unique distilleries, variants or finishes out there, each with its trademark USP? Medicinal Laphroaig also has its own variants.

What Exactly is Aroma?

The human olfactory system is a complex network of structures and pathways that enables us to detect and perceive aromas, also known as odours or smells. It is responsible for processing chemical signals from the environment, which are detected by specialised cells called olfactory receptors in the nose. The olfactory system begins with the olfactory mucosa, a thin layer of tissue lining the roof of the nasal cavity, where odour molecules bind to olfactory receptors. These receptors are sensitive to specific shapes and sizes of molecules, allowing us to distinguish between different smells. The bound molecules trigger a signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, a structure located in the forebrain, where it is processed and analysed. The processed information is then sent to other parts of the brain, such as the limbic system, which is responsible for emotions and memory, and the hippocampus, which plays a role in memory formation. The olfactory system is closely linked to our emotional and cognitive centres, which is why smells can evoke strong emotional responses and memories. Additionally, the olfactory system is highly sensitive and can detect extremely small concentrations of odour molecules, making it an essential sense for our everyday experiences.

What Exactly is Taste?

Taste is the perception stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with the sense of smell and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavours of food and other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas, including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.

The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called papillae, which are visible to the naked eye. Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells.

Taste receptors in the mouth sense the five basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and savoriness (also known as umami). Scientific experiments have demonstrated that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to tell different tastes apart when they interact with different molecules or ions. Sweetness, savouriness and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metals or hydrogen ions meet taste buds, respectively.

The basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavour of food in the mouth—other factors include smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by temperature receptors; and "coolness" (such as of menthol) and "hotness" (pungency), by chemesthesis.

In one line, it is the detection of a set of chemicals that define Aroma and Taste.

Now that we know what we are looking for and how we find them, let us proceed to The Tasting Wheel. The Council of Whisky Masters recommends the official Tasting Wheel published by Whisky Magazine, also known as Delmarter's Tasting Wheel.

On this page, I will break down the hard-to-read wheel details, for practical use in daily leisure tastings as well as analytical tastings. The categories and descriptors shown on this page are part of the official vocabulary for all assessors.

The 6 categories starting clockwise from the 12 o’clock position through the wheel show  categories that arise mainly from malting, fermentation and distillation:

Cereal

Fruity

Floral

Peaty

Feinty

Sulphury

The 2 categories in the upper left quadrant of the Tasting Wheel (7&8) cover categories that arise mainly from the wood maturation process of the whisky:

Woody

Winey

Category 1: Cereal Flavours

These flavours are related to malted barley or other grain types.

Cooked Mash: porridge, bran, mash tun draff, cooked, potato skins

Cooked Veg: mashed potato, boiled corn, baked potato

Husky: dried hops, mousy, ale, iron tonic

Malt Extract: malted milk, cattle, cake

Yeasty: pork fat, sausage, gravy, meaty

Category 2: Fruity Flavours

Appealing aspects from the production process, sweet & fragrant.

Citric: oranges, tangerine, kiwi, nectarines, lemon, kinu

Fresh Fruit: apples, pears, peaches, apricot, fruit salad, lychees, custard apple, chikoos

Cooked Fruit: stewed apple, marmalade, jam, candied fruits, barley sugar

Dried Fruit: raisins, figs, dates, prunes, fruit cake, mince pies

Solvent: nail varnish remover, bubble gum, paint, soda, pine essence

Category 3: Floral Flavours

Scents associated to fresh grass and hay, or leaves.

Fragrant: perfume, fabric softener, barber’s shop, coconut, lavender

Green House: geraniums, green tomatoes, florist’s shop

Leafy: green leaves, lawn clippings, pea pods, fir, pine nuts

Hay: mown hay, dry hay, barns, heather, herbal, sage, mulch, mown lawn

Category 4: Peaty Flavours

In Scotch, peat flavours join the malt during the kilning process.

Medicinal: iodine, carbolic, hospitals, lint, tar, diesel oil, sea-weed

Smoky: bonfire, burnt sticks, incense, peat reek

Kippery: sea shells, dried shellfish, oysters, smoked salmon, anchovies

Mossy: moss water, birchy, earthy, turf, hemp rope, fishing nets

Category 5: Feinty Flavours

Feints enter the picture in the end of the spirits run, and they become milder during wood maturation.

Honey: clover honey, heather honey, mead, beeswax,maple syrup polish

Leathery: leather upholstery, libraries, new cowhide, biscuits

Sweat & Plastic: buttermilk, cheese, yeast, shoe polish, old gym shoes, plastic rope

Tobacco: dried tea, fresh tobacco, tobacco ash

Category 6: Sulphury Flavours

Mostly developing during distillation, these problematic flavours are moderated through the fluid interaction with copper.

Coal Gas: spent fireworks, burnt matches, matchbox

Rubbery: pencil eraser, new tires, electric cables, burnt rubber

Sandy: fresh laundry, starch, linen, beach, sulphur

Vegetative: brackish, cabbage water, turnips, stagnant, marsh gas

Category 7: Woody Flavours

Partially directly from the oak, partially related to aging, wood maturation increases complexity and balance, and adds colour.

Toasted: rice pudding, burnt toast, coffee grounds, fennel, liquorice

Vanilla: custard, crème caramel, sponge, madeira cake, toffee

Old Wood: musty, cardboard, cellars, pencils, cork, ink, metallic

New Wood: resinous, cigar box, sandalwood, cedar, ginger, pepper, nutmeg

Category 8: Winey Flavours

If casks were filled with a type of wine before using them for whisky, some of the wine flavours can become part of the whisky profile.

Sherried: white or red wine, sauternes, fino, oloroso, armagnac, madeira, port

Nutty: walnuts, hazel nuts, praline, almonds, marzipan, betel

Chocolate: cream, butter, milk chocolate, cocoa, bitter chocolate

Oily: linseed oil, candlewax, suntan oil, olive oil

The roundness of a Tasting Wheel indicates that flavor categorisation represents a circular continuum:

One type of flavour may blend into the next, often absent of clear borders. When present in moderation, most of the above tasting descriptors are perceived as positive. However, presence of some flavours usually fall into the category “nasty”, e.g., metallic, musty, vegetal, cheesy, very meaty, sulphury.

FROM DESCRIPTION TO EVALUATION

While the above Tasting Wheel discussion assists during the description of whisk(e)y, other categories and criteria are used during a professional and comparative evaluation of the spirit:

Assessing a whisky’s Complexity, Balance and Expressiveness may help the taster to arrive at an overall quality assessment. Further, assessing a sample’s Type and Character—its expression of a regional or traditional style alongside the distillery’s unique characteristics—may provide further insight into the product’s identity and relative positioning in the marketplace.

APPEARANCE AND COLOUR

All Scotch whisky is aged in oak casks and picks up colour from the maturation process. The final colour will depend on the length of the aging, the kind of barrel used, and its prior contents. There are a variety of colour classifications and recognised gradations that are used, though the specific subdivisions identified will vary by author.

Begin your evaluation of a Scotch whisky by first assessing the colour. Pour in a measure of whisky—about an ounce or so. Hold the glass to the light and assess its colour, depth or intensity, and its clarity. New spirit is gin-clear; 20 years in sherry wood may turn the whisky the colour of molasses. Between these poles is a spectrum of hues. The classification shown here recognises seventeen different colour hues.

The first step is to ask yourself, how would you describe the colour of the whisky you are evaluating? How does it appear? Is it clear or hazy? Are there any other distinctive elements of its appearance that are worth noting?

NOSE OR AROMA

The second step in the sensory evaluation of whisky is to identify its principal aromas. This is done largely with the nose and this step in the evaluation process is typically called nosing.

The type of glass used to evaluate or enjoy whisky can have an enormous impact on its sensory appreciation. Fortunately, the choice of glassware is usually under one’s control. The shape and volume of the glass have a distinct effect on taste, both by concentrating the aromas and directing them to your nose, and by directing the Scotch to specific parts of the tongue. A Glencairn or a Riedel whisky glass is recommended. A sherry copita can also be used. Like wine, gently swirl the contents of the glass. The shape of the glass, the volatility of the aromatic compounds in the whisky activated by a gentle swirl will release the whisky’s aroma. Swirling the glass vigorously often results in increasing the amount of evaporated alcohol and will actually desensitise the nose, making it less able to distinguish the aromas present.

What condition is the whisky in? Are there any obvious off notes? Typically these would be feinty such as plastic, sweat, or cheese and would indicate a poor distillation process or a wash contaminated with undesirable yeasts or bacteria. If a bottle has been stored on its side and has had prolonged contact with its cork there could be cork taint resulting in a musty, wet cardboard aroma. Whisky that has been aged in casks that have sulphur taint could exhibit the burned match smell typical of sulphur dioxide. The most commonly encountered fault is oxidation resulting from a bottle that has been opened too long and has had excessive exposure to air. Oxidation will result in the loss of the lighter, more volatile aroma elements in a whisky, resulting in a whisky that seems bland, less intense, and one dimensional.

The second factor to consider is the intensity and characteristics of the aroma. Are the aromas intense or subdued? Lowland malts and whiskies that have undergone triple or quadruple distillation often exhibit lighter, less intense aromas. Heavier highland malts, especially heavily peated whiskies, will typically exhibit stronger, more robust aromas. Does the aroma seem harsh or spirity, as is typical of young whiskies, or does it have the well-integrated rancio aromas of old wood and leather that we associate with extended aging?

The best time for a sensory evaluation is before lunch. Add a little water, especially if there is a nose prickle indicating a high ABV, as this will release additional aromas. Do the aromas change and if so how? Is there a progression of aromas, especially after you add some water, or does the initial aroma just gradually fade away? The addition of water also makes it easier to hold the whisky in your mouth. Swirl the whisky within the mouth so that it reaches all parts of it. Finally, let the whisky trickle down your throat slowly rather than swallowing it in one gulp.

The addition of water to whisky has become a controversial issue of late. Historically, the addition of a small amount of water, typically one half of the volume of the whisky in the glass, was recommended to release some additional aromas in the whisky, a practice sometimes referred to as “releasing the serpent.” The noted whisky critic and author Jim Murray, on the other hand, insists on reviewing whiskies “neat” on the basis that any added water would create a different experience for his readers unless they were able to use the exact water that he did.

The matter is further complicated by findings of research by Rachel Barrie when Bowmore Distillery’s Master Blender, and cocktail and spirits write Camper English, which they believed showed that the addition of water from the same locale where a whisky was made tended to intensify the basic character of that whisky. In other words, the addition of water from Islay will make a heavily peated Islay whisky taste even more peated.

Whyte & Mackay master blender Richard Paterson, renowned for his ability to assess single malts and blends is picky about the glass. It must be tulip shaped with a stem—he likes to hold his glass only by the stem. As for adding water, he believes that 35% ABV is the best ABV for tasting young whiskies, i.e., 12 YO or less. For 15 YO whiskies, he sips it neat. If it bites, he adds water until it mellows. For him, ice is taboo, as it subdues most flavours by reducing their volatility, thereby suppressing its aromatics. For tasting, he takes a small amount of whisky and keeps it on and under the tongue for a few seconds and assesses the flavours, then lets it go down while he savours the flavours for the following 20 to 30 seconds. His tip: always take a second taste. “Different layers will start to open up to you with the second taste,” says Paterson.

I recommend you base your decision on the nose burn felt, if at all, during nosing. Have a small sip first, add five to six drops of water, a gentle swirl, pause a minute and sip again. The water is free H2O. It will react with free molecules of volatile compounds floating in the glass and add another flavour or two.  

PALATE: TASTE, MOUTH FEEL, AND FINISH

The third step consists of the primary tastes associated with the whisky and its body or mouth feel. In reality what we call taste is a combination of the five primary tastes as well as aromas that we perceive while the whisky is in our mouth and that we add to the taste profile.

Many of the flavours that we associate with “taste” are in actuality aromas. These are perceived by the olfactory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. This organ is a mass of epithelial tissue located on the roof of the nasal cavity about three inches above and behind the nostril and is directly responsible for detecting odours.

When you have a cold, your nose loses much of its ability to distinguish aromas. This is why food doesn’t taste as appetising when your nose is congested. There are only 9,000 taste buds on the surface of the tongue, the roof of mouth, and in the throat. The human nose, on the other hand, has millions of epithelial cells and can detect more than ten thousand aromas.

TASTE

There are five primary tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami.

The first four tastes are straightforward and are familiar to most everyone, although it should be noted that individual sensitivity to each of those tastes can vary widely. Umami, the fifth taste, is an Indian word that is typically translated as savoury. It represents the taste of glutamate. The tongue has specialised taste cells, or specific taste sensors, for each of these tastes. These sensors, or taste buds, are located throughout the mouth and throat but are especially concentrated in particular areas of the tongue.

The first tastes discerned by the mouth are sweet and salty. The taste receptors for these two tastes are particularly concentrated at the tip of the tongue. The receptors for sour are located about halfway up the tongue on either side, while the receptors for bitter are at the back of the tongue. A few taste buds for Umami are in the central half of the tongue but most are at the back of the mouth and in the upper throat. Paradoxically, the centre of the tongue has very few  taste buds.

Order of Taste

Salt, the primary cooking flavour, is first tasted at a concentration of about 0.025 percent. It is a strong flavor stimulant that can “round off” sweetness. Sugar is tasted at around 0.5 percent sucrose concentration and is associated with warm and pleasant feelings. Sour is the taste that detects acidity. It will register at a concentration of 0.000135 percent. Bitter is tasted at a minuscule 0.00005 percent concentration. It is the slowest taste to register, taking up to ten seconds or more.

Bitter becomes enticing to the palate as we age and actually stimulates appetite. Umami records the presence of glutamate and indicates the presence of amino acids. It is tasted through monosodium glutamate (MSG), first extracted from soup seasoning made from seaweed. MSG is discerned at 0.03 percent concentration and enhances the flavour of meats. The taste of glutamate is often described as that of asparagus.

MOUTH FEEL

Mouth feel is also referred to as body. It is a measure of weight, richness, or viscosity of the whisky when it is in one’s mouth. Sugar, flavour compounds and alcohol will add to the sensation of “body.” Fusil alcohols, while a fault in excessive quantities, can, in small amounts, create a sensation of richness and greater viscosity. Tannins extracted from wood will have a similar effect. Whiskies that have been aged will typically exhibit more body than a young whisky. In older whiskies the alcohol is better integrated with the flavour components and this also adds to the sensation of a heavier mouth feel.

FINISH

As the whisky is swirled around in one’s mouth there are additional “flavour components” that are being released. These too are simply additional aromas that are being perceived by the taster. The finish, or length, refers to the length of time that these additional aromas linger in the mouth after the whisky has been swallowed. A long, lingering finish is typically associated with an older, well-aged, well-integrated whisky, and is considered a sign of quality. Although even a young whisky can exhibit a lingering finish. Anything peaty will often exhibit a long finish regardless of the age. Is the finish long or short? Are the flavours in balance? Is the finish excessively spirity and harsh? Do you experience a complex succession of multiple flavours.

Based on this threefold evaluation, a reviewer can make a determination of quality. Is it faulty, poor, acceptable, good, very good, or outstanding? How is the balance, length, and complexity? Is it a good example of its type? Whiskies where one particular flavour component dominates can make a malt seem boring and one-dimensional and is usually considered a fault, on the other hand if you are evaluating “peat monsters”, that intensity of flavour is precisely what you are searching for. 

THE ROLE OF OAK CASKS

The major constituents of oak are the three building blocks of all woody plants - cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin - plus tannins and small amounts of lipids (oils, fats and waxes). An exception, which applies mainly to American white oak, is the oak lactones. The small amounts of lipids give rise during the coopering process to oak lactones. These have a profound effect upon flavour.

When considering oak’s influence on wines and spirits during maturation, it is important to remember that oak barrels, chips or tank staves do not consist of oak as such, but as oak which has been modified by seasoning and heat treatments - toasting or charring.

Approximate composition of American and European oaks

Species	%    Cellulose	% Hemicellulose	%  Lignin	%  Extractives
European oak	38	29	25 4.	4 0
English oak	39-42	19-26	25-34	3.8-6.1
American oak	44	24	24	5.4

 

1.  Cellulose : Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer on Earth and consists of linear chains of glucose units. It plays no part in maturation other than to help hold the wood together. However, there is some evidence that it can play a role in bacterial action in wine maturation, but not whisky maturation.

2.  Hemicellulose : Hemicellulose is a two-dimensional polymer which consists of several simple sugars. Whereas cellulose consists purely of glucose sugar units, hemicellulose can be broken down into several simple sugars. These include glucose, xylose, mannose, rhamnose, arabinose and galactose. Although two-dimensional in structure compared to the single dimensional chain-like structure of cellullose, hemicellulose is less abundant and less stable. Upon heating it breaks down into constituent sugars and these rapidly break down further into caramelization products. This aspect of toasting and charring of oak wood is extremely complex but is clearly of great importance in the development of toasty flavors. The breakdown of hemicellulose by heat begins around 140°C (284°F) and stops at 220°C (430°F).

Toasting yields furfural, hydroxymethyl furfural, maltol, cyclotene and a host of other sugar condensation products en route to the highly condensed structures which give the brown color of caramel. Acetic acid and methyl alcohol are also formed. Thus the breakdown of hemicellulose yields wood sugars which add to the body of the matured product, toasty flavors and color. With the exception of furfural these compounds have sweet-associated burnt sugar or caramelized aromas and flavors. In addition there are numerous other compounds released during toasting which have similar characteristics.

3. Lignin : Lignin is a three-dimensional polymer. Oak lignin - i.e., hardwood lignin - consists of two building blocks, the guaiacyl and syringyl structures. In matured drinks these two building blocks give rise to two groups of compounds. These are coniferaldehyde, vanillin and vanillic acid in one group and sinapaldehyde, syringaldehyde and syringic acid from the syringyl structure in the other. The structure and aroma detection thresholds of these compounds (in 20% alcohol : water) reveal that the application of relatively gentle heat or mild acid attack releases the compounds listed above, collectively known as phenolic aldehydes. But when extra heat is applied the lignin complex can break down into much simpler structures - the steam volatile phenols. These are responsible for the smoky aroma and flavors often found after barrel maturation.

Oak tannins are described as hydrolysable because they can be broken down into simpler parts in the presence of water and acidity. Ellagitannins are formed when glucose combines with ellagic and sometimes gallic acid. Resulting compounds are both astringent and bitter and they are clearly unattractive to potential distillers. It is a major part of the process of seasoning and toasting (or charring) to break down the tannins and render them more acceptable. At the same time they also play an essential role in maturation by enabling oxidation and the creation of a delicate fragrance in spirits. Three steps are involved in this mechanism. The first two are common to both wines and spirits. The third is largely restricted to spirits.

In Step 1, the wood tannin reacts with oxygen in the presence of a transition metal - e.g., iron, copper or manganese - to release activated oxygen which can be represented by hydrogen peroxide. In Step 2 the activated oxygen is able to oxidise alcohol to acetaldehyde. In the third step more alcohol combines with the acetaldehyde from Step 2 and creates a new compound in the drink. This is diethylacetal, often just called acetal. This compound has a strongly ethereal influence on the product giving it delicacy and top-note. Without this step matured spirits are dull and flat.

 

 

 

SCOTCH WHISKY IN 2025

SNIPPETS FOR 2025 IN THE WORLD OF SCOTCH WHISKY

HIGHLAND PARK RELEASES ITS OLDEST AND RAREST SINGLE MALT

Highland Park released on 22 Jan 2025 its oldest and rarest single malt Scotch Whisky, Highland Park 56, created from a never-before-tasted cask from the same line that has produced some of the distillery’s oldest, rarest and most exceptional whiskies.

In 2008, the new Master Whisky Maker of Highland Park, Gordon Motion, came upon ten 1968-vintage casks. The whisky was exceptional, as was Gordon’s vision of the future of these casks – he saw the opportunity to create something truly special. The whisky in these casks was given a second maturation in first-fill sherry-seasoned casks, creating incredible depth and complexity. These casks went on to produce some of Highland Park’s most prized expression.

Just one was reserved for use in the Highland Park 56. Only 170 bottles of Highland Park 56 have been created, priced at $53,500/-

Design inspiration for the 56 comes from Orkney’s distinctive nature, culture and craft that has been evolving on the islands for thousands of years. The Standing Stones of Stenness - a significant site of World Heritage status in Orkney – influences the decanter and presentation case design, exploring humanity’s fingerprint on the islands.

Orkney is a place where time-honoured craft is energised by creativity, but it is also renowned for the ever-present power of nature. It’s that unique natural environment which gives Highland Park its distinctive flavour. Invigorating winds mean trees struggle to grow resulting in heather moorland, influencing its decaying compost to produce distinctive subtle smoke of the local heathered peat.

It has both complexity and vibrancy – even after all these years, the distinctive character of Highland Park’s Orkney heathered-peat stands out. There isn’t the intense woodiness typically expected in a whisky of this age. The 56 has all the complexity and depth of an aged whisky, full of the taste the distinctive, subtle smoke of the Orkney heathered peat which makes this whisky remarkable.

Highland Park 56 marks the second collaboration between John Galvin and Michael Rudak on a Highland Park bottling, having previously worked on the presentation for Highland Park 54. The two set out to tell a story about the human relationship with nature on Orkney, and how this has influenced Highland Park.

If Highland Park 54 was all about how the separated island of Orkney was created and the millennia-old geological make-up of the islands, Highland Park 56 can be seen as a continuation of this history – to explore humanity’s fingerprint on the islands, as well as that dynamic relationship with the land and the use of all the beautiful, natural materials and resources.

THE GLENLIVET LAUNCHES ITS OLDEST EVER PERMANENT EXPRESSION

Glenlivet held the record for aging the oldest single malt Scotch in the world for 80 years. In 1940, Glenlivet Cask 340 was sealed, and it wasn’t reopened for 80 years. In 2020, 250 decanters were filled with the rare whisky, which sold for over $90,000 a bottle. At the time, it was a history-making Scotch, aged longer than any other single malt on the market.

The Glenlivet, the emblematic Speyside single malt Scotch whisky distillery, has revealed its latest addition to its core range: The Glenlivet 40-year-old as the yearlong celebrations wound down into the new year. This release, the oldest permanent expression in the brand’s history, comes at a time when the Scotch whisky industry is grappling with economic pressures and significant tax hikes as reported in my earlier post.

Matured and refined for 40 years, the new single malt scotch whisky was finished in sherry casks from Jerez. More specifically, these were seasoned with a bespoke blend of Oloroso and Pedro Ximénez Sherries, ensuring they would complement the depth and maturity of this single malt whisky. The choice of cask finish and extensive maturation period together pays testament to The Glenlivet’s commitment to quality and craftmanship within whisky making. The whisky was bottled at cask strength, 46.9% ABV un-chill-filtered and in natural colour. It is priced at £4,600/-

This release embodies the trailblazing spirit of The Glenlivet while honouring the foresight of those who began this journey 4 decades ago. The 40 YO is offered in an elongated bottle which is inspired by the brand's original glass silhouette. The brand made sure to take things a step further when designing the packaging as well, which isn’t the usual teal they use for other releases. Instead, they opted to present the single malt in a copper-colored container that's supposed to remind imbibers of the copper stills used to make the Scotch. The bottle, meanwhile, is elegant and straightforward with gold lettering. Additionally, The Glenlivet's specially designed teal encircles a small cameo of the distillery's founder, George Smith.

Tasting Notes:

Nose: Rich and fruity aromas, with notes of homemade strawberry jam and raisins. Luscious dark cherries are complemented by cinnamon, nutmeg and a hint of sweet, toasted oak.
Palate: The whisky offers sweet layers of poached plums and charred orange that progress to yet deeper notes of dark chocolate, braised red apples and sweet liquorice.
Finish: Long, sweet and rich finish with warming spice.

BALLANTINE’S RELEASES CHAPTER 2 40-YO THE WAITING

Multi-award-winning Scotch whisky, Ballantine’s, continues to celebrate its legacy of skilled makers, unveiling the anticipated second chapter of the revered Ballantine’s 40-Year-Old Masterclass Collection: Chapter Two ‘The Waiting’. This second Chapter commends the long and patient Waiting at the heart of the blending journey. And its creator’s recognition that the whisky will be ready when – and only when – time and cask have done their work.

The new Ballantine’s 40-Year-Old Masterclass Collection: Chapter Two ‘The Waiting’, was launched in a celebratory function at the Maison LeCercle lounge in Gangnam, Seoul, hosted by Pernod Ricard Korea, on 27 November. The venue was selected in recognition of the stats that show Korea Duty Free as Numero Uno in the sale of the Ballantine’s brand.

BACKGROUND: The brand is named after the five Master Blenders who spent their lifetime in bringing Ballantine’s to where it is, on top of the world, the bestseller in Europe and second to the Johnnie Walker series globally. Chapter One, The Remembering, was released in 2023. Chapters Three and Four are expected to be released in 2025 and 2026 respectively, with Chapter Five coming in 2027, marking Ballantine’s 200th anniversary.

THE FIVE PIONEERS: The story starts with its founder GeorgeBallantine – an 1808-born Scottish grocer who also blended teas for a living and from 1822, was an apprentice for the next five years to Andrew Hunter, an Edinburgh grocer and dealer in wines and spirits. At the age of 19 in 1827, using his humble savings, he opened his first grocery store in Edinburgh's Cowgate. Upon realising the whisky he was buying wasn’t up to scratch, and ever the entrepreneur, George began blending his own whiskies. George was a True Character who followed his own path, and it’s this desire that propelled his whisky to stardom. George later shared his whisky blending expertise with his sons George II, Archibald and Daniel, as well as his grandson, George III.

In 1895, Ballantine & Son was awarded with a Royal Warrant from Queen Victoria, the ultimate endorsement of the company’s prestigious reputation. The Ballantine’s family first blended Finest in 1910, and it still stands as the oldest recipe in the current range. Finest is still the most popular in our range, proof that quality lasts the test of time.

The next master blender was yet another George, although not related to the Ballantine family. He inherited the job in 1937, after WWI and 13 years of Prohibition, so found himself with barrel upon barrel of matured whisky. George Robertson created the world’s first (and to this day most rewarded) 17 year old Scotch and the prestigious Ballantine’s 30.

Starting 1959, Jack Goudy carried on the tradition of producing excellence with the introduction of the 12 year old blend. He also trained up two future master blenders, making sure the quality of Ballantine’s would continue for years to come. Jack taught them the importance of sourcing the best scotch and maturing it in the best American oak. Casks of American oak have arrived every year since, maintaining that same high quality and flavour.

The first of Goudy’s prodigies was Robert Hicks, a perfectionist in the world of whisky. He worked with Jack for 24 years before taking on the role of master blender in 1994 and was renowned for having one of the best noses when it came to smelling whisky. The current master blender and the second of Goudy’s prodigies, Sandy Hyslop drives innovation on Ballantine’s. As the most prolific of the master blenders, he brought new whisky tastes to the market like Ballantine’s Brasil and Ballantine’s 7 Bourbon Finish. Hyslop also added Ballantine’s 40 to the family, the oldest expression ever in the range and something that he is particularly proud of.

THE WHISKY: Chapter Two ‘The Waiting’ is inspired by an essential ingredient in whisky making: patience, which is particularly important when creating a high age statement scotch. Master Blender, Sandy Hyslop, drew on his experiences as an apprentice under former Master Blender, Jack Goudy who had laid down the casks that have been used to create the 40 year old blend, with the whisky being matured in American oak casks for four decades. The resulting whisky, bottled at cask strength 45.4% ABV, is an opulent and complex whisky, with smooth sweet tones and a hint of gentle smoke, according to the official press release.

Only 108 bottles of the 40-year-old blend have been produced. They are now available at global specialist retailers for an RRP of $12,000. Each bottle of this Chapter is presented with individual numbers, which, in turn, are housed in a sleek presentation box. Scottish artist, Kyla McCallum created a 3D paper art piece for the inside of the box, which each chapter featuring a different design.

OFFICIAL TASTING NOTES:

Colour: Deep amber gold.
Nose: Incredibly rich and fruity: bursting with flavours of fresh apricot, caramelised figs, Seville orange marmalade and charred pineapple. This intertwines with cinnamon, ginger spice and sweet, nutty oak.
Palate: This whisky is rich and complex to taste: spiced red apples, homemade blackcurrant jam and juicy, dark cherries combine with notes of lavish toffee, dark chocolate, and warming clove spice.
Finish: Enduring, with a slightly dry complexity. Perfectly balanced.

BROWN FORMAN HIT BY DOWNTURN IN SCOTCH MARKET

Brown-Forman has been busy making itself a more international company but its home market remains a significant part of the business. Given the sluggish state of the US spirits category and the possible threat of a tariff war sparked by the new Trump administration which rarely stops to think before acting, it would be logical to see Brown-Forman’s shake-up as a sign the company’s management is downbeat about the months ahead.

Glenglassaugh To Share Production with BenRiach

Brown-Forman has confirmed it is pausing production at its Glenglassaugh Distillery during a challenging time for the Scotch whisky industry. The distillery was founded in 1875, closed in 1986, revived by the Scaent Group in 2008 and acquired by BenRiach Distillery in 2013 and became part of Brown-Forman’s portfolio in 2016. In its most recent financial results, it revealed its ‘rest of whisky’ portfolio, which includes both Glenglassaugh and BenRiach, had plunged by 22%.

Brown-Forman’s official position is that Glenglassaugh Distillery is not shutting down, but implementing a shared production model with BenRiach, which will involve periods of production alongside occasional silent seasons, as has been the case traditionally. This allows the owners to optimise resources and expertise across both distilleries.

The shared production model at Glenglassaugh aligns with Brown-Forman’s broader operational restructuring, announced in January 2025, which includes a 12% reduction in its global workforce affecting approximately 650 of its 5,400 employees worldwide. The company has committed to providing comprehensive transition support, including severance and outplacement services for departing staff.

Resource sharing between Scottish distilleries is not unprecedented. Brown-Forman already employs this approach with Master Blender Rachel Barrie, who oversees whisky creation across their Scottish single malt portfolio. The extension of this model to production staff represents a natural evolution of operational efficiency measures.

Similar production strategies exist elsewhere in the industry. Glenfarclas, for example, maintains its traditional summer silent season, demonstrating how historical practices can align with modern operational efficiency. These approaches help distilleries optimize resources while maintaining product quality and meeting market demand.

The decision comes amid shifting market conditions in the whisky industry. While consumer confidence shows signs of recovery, spending patterns remain below pre-2021 levels, prompting producers to adjust operations accordingly while maintaining production capabilities for future growth.

After Brown-Forman acquired all three distilleries, they started revamping and re-releasing their whisky lineups over the course of the past ten years. The Glenglassaugh core range was relaunched in 2023 with three new expressions-the 12 YO, Portsoy, and Sandend-and last spring, the ultra-aged (and ultra-expensive) Serpentine Coastal Cask Collection. The brand’s previous core range – Revival, Evolution and Torfa – has been discontinued and the whiskies are no longer being bottled.

Bottled at 45% ABV, the flagship 12-year-old bottling is said to embody the brand’s ‘signature coastal style’. It was matured in Bourbon, Sherry and red wine casks and provides a nose of ripe apricot, figs and vanilla, with flavours of pistachio, dates, sweet fig, morello cherry and whipped cream. RRP £50 (US$63).

The Sandend single malt was inspired by the crescent beach of Sandend Bay, and matured in Bourbon, Sherry and manzanilla casks. The 50.5% ABV bottling has an aroma of ‘soft buttery vanilla ice cream drenched in tropical fruit, with chocolate and a touch of sea salt’. Flavours of salted caramel follow on the palate with hints of pineapple, cherry and grapefruit. RRP £55 (US$70).

The ‘richly peated’ Portsoy whisky (49.1% ABV) was inspired by the neighbouring harbour village of the same name. Matured in Sherry, Bourbon and Port casks, the single malt carries notes of maritime, tropical fruit, Sherried dark soy, liquorice and sea kelp on the nose, alongside flavours of dark chocolate, fermented soy and charred mango, with treacle and sea salt. RRP £60 (US$76).

The Serpentine Coastal Cask Collection

When the distillery was reawakened in 2008, after a near twenty year period of closure, a rare collection of casks were discovered in its coastal warehouses. Chosen by Master Blender Rachel Barrie, each cask selected for The Serpentine Coastal Cask Collection offers a unique and exceptional sensory experience, speaking to the interplay between the natural environment, the fine wood of the cask and the hands of time.

Serpentine Coastal Cask #1863

Age: 48 YO ABV 46.1%

Cask Type: Aleatico Red Wine Barrique

Colour: Rouge Bronze

Nose: Enticing waves of soft blueberry, peach and tamarind on a base of meringue and gently salted pistachio cream

Finish: An infusion of passion fruit and sea salt

Serpentine Coastal Cask #5640

Age: 49 YO ABV: 42.1%

Cask Type: Bourbon Barrel

Colour: Medallion gold

Nose: Exotic fruit elixir with guava, white peach and coconut cream carried on a sultry gorse-infused ocean breeze

Taste: Silken waves of tropical sun-drenched fruit envelope the palate in a papaya, passion fruit and guava caress

Finish: Salty with mixed fruit melange

Serpentine Coastal Cask #1723

Age: 51 YO ABV 44.2%

Cask Type: Oloroso Puncheon

Colour: Molten bronze

Nose: Sun-dried raisin, blood orange preserve and maraschino cherry, with sandalwood, spiced vetiver and sea salt

Taste: Enveloping waves of raisin balsamic, blackberry juice and salted treacle infused with orange

Finish: Sloe syrup 

CHIVAS REGAL RELEASES SMOKY NEW EXTRA

What is not generally known is that the Chivas Brothers company came into being only in 1857, when John Chivas joined his elder brother James in his grocery, wine shop and luxury goods emporium in Aberdeen. Moreover, no member of the Chivas Family was or is connected with the Pernod Ricard owned Chivas Regal brand, which debuted its first two premium Blended Scotch whiskies in the booming luxury whisky market in the USA; the 25 YO in 1909 and the 12 YO in 1939, both in green bottles.

In the latest addition to the Extra range, blended Scotch whisky brand Chivas Regal has unveiled the Chivas Regal Extra Smoky Cask Selection launched in November 2024. The expression combines the Chivas Regal house style with gentle and smooth smoke.

Chivas Regal Extra Smoky Cask Selection is the latest expression to be released from the iconic blended Scotch, combining the richness of the traditional Chivas Regal house style with the gentle taste of smooth smoke. In the latest addition to the Extra range, the Chivas Regal Extra Smoky Cask Selection was launched in November 2024., this new blend has been selectively finished in smoky whisky casks previously housing peated whisky, bringing additional depth and flavour to the renowned Chivas Regal Extra range.

By driving the idea of adding ‘extra’ flavour to Chivas Regal whiskies through new and exciting extra cask finishes, Chivas Brothers are responding to consumer demand and exploring new flavour profiles in Scotch. The deep and rich notes in their latest expression bring a new and sophisticated edge to the Chivas Regal Extra range, offering whisky lovers a smooth and smoky tasting experience.

Chivas Regal has always used smoky casks as part of the Chivas Regal blend. However, where the standard expression carries very subtle smoky notes, this new release takes the notes to a new level. The blend was finished in specially selected smoky casks that had previously been used to mature peated whisky, imparting a distinctive smoky flavour that perfectly complements the smooth and sippable nature of Chivas Regal Scotch.

The resulting blended Scotch whisky, again a 40% ABV expression, boasts aromas of spiced apples and roasted chestnuts followed by cranberries, sweet caramel, and gingerbread on the palate. The whisky ends with star anise and bonfire smoke.

The packaging of Chivas Regal Extra Smoky Cask Selection is specifically designed to reflect the smoky hues of the blend, featuring charcoal colouring and golden flowing lines throughout. These elements are intertwined with the classic Chivas Regal shield and crossed spears, symbolising protection and loyalty, reflecting the brotherhood of James and John Chivas, whose entrepreneurial spirit set the groundwork for the world’s first luxury whisky.

Chivas Regal Extra Smoky Cask Selection joins four other unique expressions in the Chivas Regal Extra range, each carefully crafted with a distinct flavour profile imparted from casks such as Irish Whiskey, Tequila, Rum and Oloroso Sherry.  

GLENDRONACH RELEASES ITS ODE SERIES

RELEASE IN TRUE RACHEL BARRIE STYLE

End 2024 saw Glendronach revealing its new Master's Anthology series of single malts that will join its core range. Curated by master blender Rachel Barrie, the Master's Anthology explores the complexities of sherry cask maturation, and as is the norm with her, all are No Age Statement Whiskies.

In the Forgue Valley, deep in the East Highland Hills, lies the malt distillery “ The Glendronach”, one of Scotland’s oldest distilleries. The Glendronach makes whisky in true Highland style: a heavy and robust whisky perfect for a long aging period in sherry casks. The award-winning Glendronach range combines the best of the Scottish Highlands and Spanish sherry skills and heritage to Offering whiskies with an elegant, complex character and enormous depth of flavor, matured in former sherry casks.

The Master's Anthology comprises three non-age-statement whiskies: Ode to the Valley, Ode to the Embers, and Ode to the Dark, embodying the essence of The Glendronach narrating its history, heart and the dedication of its employees. The Anthology comes just a few short months after the heritage distillery underwent a visual overhaul, unveiling new packaging alongside a creative campaign in collaboration with Scottish-born photographer and director Rankin. The latest collection launched in the UK and German markets in December, is now available globally.

Matured in port and sherry casks, Glendronach says Ode to the Valley (46.2% ABV, RRP £67) is a whisky with notes of floral nectars and summer berries that takes inspiration from its surrounding landscape. This release is aged in a combination of ruby port casks from Portugal's Douro Valley and the distillery's signature sherry casks. The result is a fruit-forward whisky with floral hints, leading to raspberries, apple crumble, and candied ginger.

Ode to the Embers (48.4% ABV, RRP £72) is a peated expression —atypical for the Highland distillery — matured in oloroso and Pedro Ximénez Sherry casks. This rare, peated expression of Glendronach celebrates the traditional methods of kilning malt with Highland peat smoke, a nod to the days of yore when all malt from GlenDronach would have been peated, and presents notes of peat smoke, spiced fruitcake, dark chocolate, and a medley of roasted nuts.

Rounding out the trio, Ode to the Dark (50.8% ABV, RRP £77) brings the Master’s Anthology to a rising crescendo. The heavy black garnet-coloured whisky has been matured in exceptional Pedro Ximénez sherry casks and bottled at high strength. Despite this, the decadent espresso and crème caramel flavours remain consistent throughout, with prominent notes of chocolate, black cherry, and dates; a flavour combination that is described as the “richest expression” of the collection.

The Master’s Anthology is a tribute to the art of sherry cask maturation, reflecting the exceptional taste and deep character that have become synonymous with the Glendronach over almost 200 years. This collection is a journey into the heart of the distillery, where time-honoured traditions and natural influences shape every drop of its whisky.

Each bottling is a new composition where Glendronach amplifies notes while retaining the rich harmony that is their tradition at the heart of the liquid. Ode to the Valley sings of an abundance of ripe fruit, it is the landscape of the Glendronach Distillery in full glory, while Ode to the Embers cloaks warm and rich spice in smouldering wisps of smoke, speaking of the days of old in the Valley of Forgue. Ode to the Dark enrobes velvet chocolate over dark plum and black cherry, caramelised dates and coffee, to bask the Glendronach in rich splendour, accorfing to Barrie.