Total Pageviews

Social Media

Tuesday, 12 August 2025

EVEN MORE ON THE CASK

 INDIAN AND TAIWANESE SINGLE MALT WHISKIES

Two regions, in particular, have taken centre-stage in a global whisky renaissance: India and Taiwan. These countries are not just producing whisky; they are reshaping the very fabric of what constitutes a world-class whisky. In a relatively short span, they have not only garnered global attention but also challenged the conventional wisdom that once dictated whisky's geography. The journey of Indian (and Taiwanese) whisky began with adapting traditional whisky-making techniques to local conditions. Distilleries in India faced unique challenges, primarily the tropical climate, which significantly impacts the aging process. Unlike the slow maturation in cooler climates, Indian whisky matures much faster due to higher temperatures, resulting in a different flavor profile. This accelerated aging process posed both a challenge and an opportunity to craft distinctive whiskies that stand out in the global arena.

However, Taiwan's higher humidity and temperature variations impart distinctive characteristics to the whisky, creating a profile that is both complex and unique, differing from the Indian whisky profile here. The common factor is that whiskies from both countries mature in three to five years. We could go a step further.

The most important factor after distillation is the barrel in which the whisky is to mature. There are hundreds of brands of 3-5 year old Scotch. Red Label, Cutty Sark, Grant's, Haig, Hankey Bannister, Harvey's, King's Choice, Passport, etc. All blended Scotch varieties. The single malts therein are thus only 3-5 years old, made in third and fourth-fill barrels. There are many 3YO single malts Scotch whiskies out there, mostly fresh outputs from the dozen or so new distilleries sprouting across Scotland, like Holyrood, Dornoch, Nc'nean, Lochlea, Glenwyvis and others, including from well established distilleries like Glenglassaugh, Kilchoman and Bruichladdich with the Octomore 10.4.

One point to note is that when we discuss whiskies from 1st or 4th fill casks, we are not counting the initial ageing that takes place when bourbon or sherry is aged in new oak casks. A 1st fill whisky cask means that the cask in question was used only once prior to that occasion for either bourbon or sherry or even wine. Bourbon is aged in new casks that have undergone mandated preparation and made ready within a week. That cask then matures bourbon for 2 years or more. Sherry casks need to be first used to mature wine for a minimum of three years before being loaded with sherry. Newly distilled single malt whisky is aged in either bourbon or sherry casks. In other words, the whisky journey starts when the casks are 2-3 years of age, at the earliest.

How long casks stay usable is correlated with the type of cask used to brew single malt whisky. All casks in which whisky is matured are always made of oak wood cut from trees between 70 to 200 years in age – either American White Oak, which grow and can be harvested much faster or European Oak, which are pricier due to lower supply. Other woods can’t be used as they impart unmistakably unpleasant flavours to whisky.  Softwoods have too much resin, which prevents the cask from “breathing” – which is a vital part of the maturation process. Wood is primarily composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, along with smaller amounts of extractives and water. At around the 60 yr stage, the casks are diverted to mature grain whisky.

Before a new cask is used, the ‘dead’ wood must be brought to life through a ‘toasting’ process. The wood is heated to 2000°C for 30 minutes. This breaks up the basic structure as cellulose is split into caramel compounds, usually caramelans (C24H36O18), caramelens (C36H50O25), and caramelins (C125H188O80) and xylose (wood sugar), HOCH2(CH(OH))3CHO. Also, the Lignin (the complex polymer in the cell walls that creates the rigidity in the wood) is converted into Vanillin, C8H8O3 – the primary content of the extract of the vanilla bean. Higher sugars like [glucose , dextrose], [maltose, sucrose, lactose],  etc., are C6H12O6 , C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ . They all have to be broken down into ethanol, C₂H₅OH, over time. In the 3-5 YO bracket of Scotch single malts, the ultra-complex compounds including aldehydes, ketones, furfural (C₄H₃OCHO), large-molecule esters, micelles [spherical structures formed by molecules with both hydrophobic (water-repelling) and hydrophilic (water-attracting)] are extracted during the ‘cutting’ phase as the condensed distillate flows down the pipe into the Spirit Safe, which, under the observation of the note-taking Excise Duty officer, directs the various cuts to different end zones. In some cases, whatever remains in situ after the cut is extracted by chill-filtration.

The ethanol to be used, called new make, is sent to huge steel or aluminium tanks of 10,000+ L capacity. These tanks finally reach the Bond House, where they are diluted and filled at 63.5-65% ABV into oak casks with a capacity < 700L. In the case of the older single malts, the complex bits are not cut off, but retained in the Spirit Safe and sent for maturation following the same procedure and finally mellowed into ethanol over the extra years. This is one major difference.

A 4–5 YO Indian or Taiwanese malt can develop complexity comparable to a 12–15 YO Scotch. Scotch Whiskies mature in a cooler, temperate climate. Ageing is slower, allowing for more gradual flavour development and smoother integration of oak. But there are subtle differences. Yet another important difference is longevity, as explained in the chart below. Essentially, rapidly aged single malts tend to oxidise rather quickly, rendering them insipid, with more water retained than alcohol.

Flavour Profile & Style

Feature

Indian Single Malt (4–5 YO)

Scotch Single Malt (12 YO)

Climate Influence

Rapid ageing, intense wood extraction

Slow ageing, subtle oak influence

Barley

Usually 6-row barley. More protein and enzyme content. Grainier flavour in the finished wash. Smaller kernel. Germinates faster.

2-row barley. More carbs. Fuller, maltier flavour in the wash. Low protein

Explanation of Wash

Fermented input to the 1st pot still (wash still) producing ~20% ABV sugary spirit directed to the 2nd pot still, the spirit still

Wash still output goes into the spirit still to produce new make, usually cut at ~70% ABV, the top and lower 15% being discarded

Flavour Notes

Tropical fruits, banana, mango, lychee, spices, bold oak, sweetness, plums, apricot, vanilla

Mellow fruits, vanilla, honey, gentle smoke, citrus fruits, berries, cake, kiwi, almond, sugar, oak wood

Texture

Often punchier, more robust

Smoother, more rounded

Peat Usage

Varies (e.g., Paul John and Amrut have peated versions)

Common in Islay Scotches, rare in Speyside

Extract Potential

Higher diastatic power (DP), indicative of their ability to convert starches into sugars

Higher potential per Kg

Devil’s Cut

Aka Indrink, this is the amount of spirit absorbed by the wood and desirable in Sherry casks. Insufficient time to extract all the Indrink. Bourbon is undesirable

Enough time to extract all indrink and absorb their colour and tastes. Origin of tastes of figs, dates, etc.

Longevity

6 months once a bottle is opened and used carefully

5-20 yrs once a bottle is opened and used carefully

SHERRY BUTTS

HOW SHERRY IS MATURED TO PROVIDE CASKS FOR WHISKY

Sherry is a fortified wine made from white grapes in Spain. The key sherry producing Spanish region is Andalusia. It starts life much like a wine. But after fermentation grape spirit is added to the base liquid. This increases the alcohol content, earning it the name "fortified" wine.

Sherry is, in fact, a collective term for eight different wine styles: Fino, Manzanilla, Amontillado, Palo Cortado, Oloroso, Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel, and Cream (which can be further categorized into Medium, Pale Cream, and Cream Sherry). These styles mainly differ in: (a) production location (Fino vs Manzanilla), (b) grape varieties (traditionally Palomino Fino, Pedro Ximénez, or Moscatel. The new regulation has included six more varieties), and (c) aging process (biological aging and/or oxidative aging). Of all the Sherry wine styles, six are most relevant to whisky.

The Real Sherry Casks

To understand why people lament the quality of Sherry casks used in whisky maturation nowadays, let’s take a step back and talk about the OG. What are Sherry casks, really?

American white oak is often used to make barrels for the aging of Sherry, because it is widely available, provides good breathability, and is low in tannins. Now comes the surprise! Although new oak barrels might be used at the fermentation stage (a practice that has mostly been replaced by steel tanks), Sherry is actually aged in old, inactive oak barrels.

Unlike other wine makers who try to “arrange a perfect marriage” between wood and fermented grape liquid, Sherry makers want the oak barrels without the wood impact. Why is that so? It is said that wood tannins tend to inhibit flor during the aging process. Also, Sherry makers simply don’t want wood flavors and tannins in Sherry wines. To avoid that, Sherry makers commonly use 600-liter oak barrels (three times bigger than standard American Bourbon barrels) for a lower wine-to-wood ratio.

In addition, before an oak barrel is “qualified” for the job of Sherry maturation, it has to be first used to ferment grape musts or to age young fortified wines for a minimum of 3 years by law (but often much longer in practice). That means that by the time an oak barrel is used to age Sherry, the impact of wood has more or less been exhausted. In fact, Sherry doesn’t get flavors from oak barrels. Instead, it gets flavors mainly through oxidization. It might also soak up some aromas from the young fortified wines previously aged in these oak barrels.

Sherry Casks in Whisky Maturation

Now you know the specific requirements of oak barrels for Sherry maturation. You might think, like Bourbon casks, the Sherry casks used in whisky maturation are the oak barrels retired from Sherry maturation, right? No. Not even in the good old days!

In those days, the Sherry casks used in whisky maturation were oak barrels used to transport aged Sherry from Spain to UK. Originally made from European oak, these transport casks had a capacity of 500 litres. Similar to the oak barrels for Sherry maturation, these transport casks were first used for fermentation or short periods of maturation, so as to reduce wood impact during transportation. Then, they were filled with aged Sherry and shipped to UK. Until the aged Sherry was bottled, it could stay in these transport casks for up to several months. During this process, a good amount of aged Sherry would seep into the wood pores. As you may guess, it didn’t make economic sense to ship these empty transport casks back to Spain. So, they were sold to the whisky industry for re-use.

Sadly, in 1986, the Spanish introduced a law dictating that all Sherry wines shall be bottled in Spain, effectively putting an end to transportation and transport casks. It should be mentioned that, before this law, there were already practices to make barrels that mimic the effects of those Sherry-seasoned transport casks. But this law has, unintentionally, turned these practices into large-scale business operations involving three parties. Whisky distilleries specify their cask requirements – the wood type, the toasting level, the type of Sherry used for seasoning, and etc. Spanish cooperages produce new oak casks accordingly. Once they’re done, the new oak casks are sent to Spanish bodegas for Sherry seasoning.

The Certified “Sherry Cask” Guarantee Label

In 2015, Consejo Regulador registered the “Sherry Cask” brand and drafted a document to regulate the production of Sherry-seasoned casks for quality control. To obtain the “Sherry Cask” guarantee label, the production of Sherry-seasoned casks should meet the following criteria:

  • The cask has to be filled to at least 85% of the total volume, with a certified Sherry wine made by bodegas registered with Consejo Regulador.
  • The cask has to continuously hold the wine at the required fill level throughout the entire seasoning process. This means bodegas can’t empty the cask and re-fill it with other wines in between.
  • The minimum seasoning period is one year.

Reading between the lines, there are three factors that will affect the quality of a Sherry cask but are not specified by Consejo Regulador:

  • Age of Sherry: Although the wine has to be a certified Sherry, there’s no regulation about the wine age. Word has it that producers typically use 2-year-old Sherry wines.
  • Re-use of Sherry: Furthermore, there’s no regulation about how many times the same wine can be re-used for seasoning! In practice, it is often re-used for several times before being discarded or being used to distill Sherry brandy or Sherry vinegar. Theoretically, a cask seasoned with a “virgin” wine can be quite different from a cask seasoned with a re-used wine, as a re-used wine contains more wood tannins.
  • Transportation: There’s no regulation about how the casks should be transported, either. Should they be transported dry? Should they be transported with Sherry? How much Sherry should these casks contain during transportation? These are, again, up to whisky distilleries.

Whisky distilleries typically have a say in these factors when making an order. Or, at least, they know what casks they are paying for. But I guess such information is too wordy for the aesthetics of their fancy product packaging; and it takes them too much effort to put it online.

How can you tell if a whisky has been aged in a Sherry cask?

There are several ways to tell if a whisky has been aged in a Sherry cask, but the most definitive method is by reading the label or packaging of the bottle. If a whisky is labelled as "Sherry cask matured" or "Sherry cask finished" it means that the whisky has been aged in casks that previously held Sherry. If the label doesn't mention anything about Sherry, it doesn't necessarily mean that the whisky wasn't aged in a Sherry cask. Some distilleries use Sherry casks as part of their ageing process without mentioning it on the label.

Another way to tell if a whisky has been aged in a Sherry cask is by tasting it. Sherry cask whisky will have distinct and complex flavours such as dried fruit, nuttiness, and sweetness, with a hint of vanilla, caramel, and honey. Additionally, it will have a characteristic dryness and a hint of spice from the oak. The finish can be long and warming with a distinct Sherry influence.

It's also worth noting that, more often than not, distilleries use Sherry casks to finish the whisky after ageing it in other types of casks. This can also impart Sherry notes to the whisky but the intensity will be less than a Sherry cask matured whisky.

AN OVERVIEW AND COMPARISON OF SHERRY CASKS

 

The Real Sherry Cask for Sherry Maturation

Transport Cask for Sherry Transportation

Today’s Certified Sherry Cask for Whisky Maturation

Wood

American oak

European oak

Both, although American oak is commonly used now

Volume

600 litres

500 litres

Typically 250 litres (aka hogsheads)

Treatment before Its Intended Use

Used for least 3 years to ferment grape musts or age young fortified wines.

Used to ferment grape musts or age young fortified wines for a short period of time.

Seasoned with a certified Sherry wine (often 2 year old) for at least one year.

Implications for Whisky Maturation

These casks are rarely used in whisky maturation.

Aged Sherry is absorbed into wood pores.

Young Sherry is absorbed into wood pores.

Most of this post has been copied from Alyssa’s article on Malt.com and can be found at this source: https://malt-review.com/2021/12/03/a-whisky-beginners-guide-to-sherry-casks/ and from https://topwhiskies.com/


Thursday, 20 February 2025

L-1 LIQUOR STORES IN GURGAON

HOW AND WHY LIQUOR IS SO CHEAP IN GURGAON

The vibrant city of Gurgaon, part of the Delhi NCT and nestled in the heart of Haryana, has become a fulcrum of economic growth and modernity in India. Amidst its sprawling skyscrapers, flourishing corporate hubs and dazzling nightlife, lies an intriguing aspect that draws both residents and visitors alike - the remarkably low prices of liquor. This phenomenon, particularly under the L1 licensing category, has piqued the curiosity of many. So, why is liquor cheaper in Gurgaon under the L1 license?

To understand the affordability of Liquor in Gurgaon, it's essential to comprehend what the L1 liquor License entails. In simple terms, an L1 license is a wholesale license granted by the state government for the warehousing and sale of liquor to retail vendors. This license is pivotal in the supply chain of alcoholic beverages, as it determines the initial point of distribution within the state.

Strategic Policies and Taxation

The government of Haryana, aiming to foster economic growth and attract investment, has crafted a liquor policy that is notably lenient compared to its counterparts. The state's approach towards the taxation and regulation of alcohol sales, especially under the L1 category, is less stringent, which, in turn, makes Liquor more accessible and affordable to the end consumer.

One of the primary reasons behind the lower prices is the relatively low excise duty imposed on liquor in Gurgaon. Excise duty, a form of tax levied on goods manufactured within a country, significantly influences the retail price of alcohol. Haryana's government has strategically positioned its excise duty on the lower end of the spectrum to maintain competitive pricing, which not only benefits consumers, but also attracts businesses involved in the alcohol trade.

Every year Government of NCT of Delhi formulates the Excise Policy and approves Terms & Conditions for grant of L 1 licenses. In pursuance to this policy and the approved terms & conditions, licences in form L 1 are granted for the wholesale supply of Indian liquor. These are granted to a Company or a society or a partnership firm or proprietorship firm having licensed manufacturing units (distillery / brewery /winery/bottling plant). Thereafter, the L 1 Licensee supplies liquor to the holders of lesser Licenses like L 6, L7... L 29, etc., in the National Capital Territory of Delhi at approved rates.

The L 1 Licence holders in Gurgaon are:

1. WFS MAHALAXMI WINES
2. G-TOWN WINES
3. DISCOVERY WINES
4. LAKE FOREST WINES
5. MODERN WINES
6. JAGDISH WINE SHOP
7. LIQUOR LAND
8. THE LIQUOR WAREHOUSE
9. LIQUOR LIBRARY

The easiest to access are at Nos. 2,3, 4,7,8 and 9.

I have compared prices in L-1 Winestores with Duty Free prices in New Delhi, Dubai and Singapore earlier and am now adding the official price list of G-Town L-1 Winestore. At the time of writing, one £ is worth 110-112 Indian Rupees.

G-TOWN CATALOGUE

This site uses Google Adsense Ad Intent Ads. Be advised that clicking on them may prove moneymaking to the creators of those Ads.

Saturday, 8 February 2025

ADD WATER OR NOT?

 SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF HOW WATER DEVELOPS YOUR DRAM

Whisky is a complex and nuanced drink that has developed over centuries and is rich in flavour and aroma. One of the most common questions that whisky enthusiasts ask is whether adding water to their dram is a good idea or not. The answer is not a simple yes or no: There is a scientific rationale behind the story.

Whisky fans are possibly the most particular spirit drinkers in the world. Debates have raged over the right way to consume whisky, with mixers or ice being either wholeheartedly welcomed or vehemently rejected by aficionados everywhere.

Water is a crucial ingredient in the whisky-making process. It is used to dilute the whisky from its cask strength, which can be as high as 70% ABV, to the desired bottling strength. Additionally, water is added during the mashing and fermentation process to create the wort, which is then distilled into whisky. The type of water used can also affect the flavour of the whisky. For example, water from peaty sources can impart a smoky flavour to the final product.

However, if you’re not drinking neat, the most commonly agreed upon method of enjoying whisky is with water. It’s long been known that adding water to a dram can open up the whisky to reveal new aromas and flavours. A recent study has now determined the optimal whisky to water ratio for drinkers.

The choice of water is crucial. Filtered or bottled water will ensure purity. You might have great tap water, but most people can’t know what’s in their supply. Tap water can contain chemicals that interfere with the whisky’s profile. Soft water is often recommended, as it can enhance the whisky’s subtle notes without overpowering them.

Room temperature water is typically best for diluting whisky. Cold water can numb your palate, obscuring the whisky’s complexity. Hot water would be even more disruptive and frankly, would be just plain weird.

Using a jug or pipette allows for precise control. A pipette is ideal for adding just a few drops, perfect for gradual adjustments without risking over-dilution. A jug is handy for measuring small amounts, especially when sharing or tasting multiple drams. These tools add a level of control that enhances your tasting experience, letting you focus on the evolving flavours with each sip.

Washington State University has conducted a two pronged experiment. Firstly, they studied the chemical composition of the headspace (the area between the top of the liquid and the top of the glass) in a range of different whiskies - including both single malt and blended Scotch, Irish whiskey, and American rye and bourbon whiskies - and then analysed the differences that occurred during dilution.

The second element of the study featured a trained panel of 20 experts assessing the aromas of six different whiskies as they were diluted. These whiskies were three Scotch whiskies and, because the experiment was conducted in the USA, three bourbons.

Undiluted, the experts were easily able to distinguish between the whiskies in the two categories, and this continued up to around 20% dilution. In this zero to 20% water range it was noted how the aromas of all six whiskies changed.

Interestingly, 20% seemed to be the maximum dilution level that had this benefit; any more than this, then the differences became less pronounced. By the time the spirits reached a 60:40 whisky-water ratio, the panelists were unable to distinguish between the various whiskies in each category, although they could still determine a difference between the Scotch and the bourbon.

In terms of flavour, the panel noted that the Scotch whiskies started off with a distinctly peaty and smoky aroma initially which subsided with dilution to reveal notes of pome fruits. The scientific analysis of the headspace went some way to explaining this.

Whisky is composed of chemical compounds that are either hydrophilic or hydrophobic, meaning attracted to or repelled by water. Adding water to whisky will in essence release these hydrophobic compounds into the headspace in the glass. Acetic acids contained within whisky are known for their ripe fruit aromas and are hydrophobic, explaining why the experts noticed sweeter, fruity aromas after dilution.

Compounds run from hydrophilic to hydrophobic on a scale, so adding different volumes of water will release different compounds and therefore reveal different aromas. Because the senses of smell and taste are so closely related, the researchers conclude that dilution will affect a whisky’s flavour as well as its aroma to a similar degree.

Those behind the study hope that their findings will help whisky makers better understand what their customers’ whisky drinking experience, particularly with water or ice, and also aim to explore reasons behind drinking trends.

For example, their research backs up the reason why serving whisky with a single large ice cube (rather than multiple smaller cubes) has become increasingly popular. Large cubes melt slower and therefore dilute the whisky less quickly, so drinkers can then enjoy their chosen whisky at a cooler temperature before it becomes too diluted. The research is still ongoing, and the researchers hope to reveal more of their work later this year.

Of course, the findings from this study probably won’t come as too much of a surprise to most whisky drinkers. At some point we’ve all experienced how an otherwise uninspiring dram can flourish with just the lightest hint of dilution, or gone the other way and accidentally killed a whisky by adding a little too much water.

Another study asked a panel of trained whisky connoisseurs to test 25 samples of bourbon, rye, single-malt and blended Scotches and Irish whiskies at various dilution levels — 100 per cent whisky, 90 per cent whisky and 10 per cent water, 80 per cent whisky and 20 per cent water, 70 per cent whisky and 30 per cent water, 60 per cent whisky and 40 per cent water, and 50 per cent whisky and 50 per cent water.

As it turned out, the panel decreed that the whisky varieties began to merge at a point starting at 80 per cent whisky and 20 per cent water as the non-hydrophilic molecules were pushed aside and crowded out. Simply put, the 80-20 whisky to water ratio hit the sweet spot, considering that a higher water percentage diluted the distinct flavours of the liquid and made all the different variants taste similar. Fixing up a drink with a water percentage lower than 20 retained its distinct aroma, properties and compositions.

ADDENDUM

Rachel Barrie, when Master Blender at Bowmore Distillery and Camper English, a cocktails and spirits writer, have argued that their experiments have showed that water drawn from the same region in which a whisky was produced seemed to bring out the specific taste qualities associated with that particular whisky. Barrie, who has a chemistry background, including a stint as a research scientist at the Scotch Whisky Research Institute, has documented the following visual and sensory changes that can be observed when water is added to whisky.

  • Firstly, something called 'viscimetric whorls' develop - these occur when liquids of differing viscosities are mixed and can be seen as the water penetrates and mixes with the whisky.
  • As the alcohol and water combine an exothermic reaction takes place.  This sees the temperature of the whisky rise by around 2ºC and allows it to release more aroma.  It also reduces the strength of alcohol and allows the sense of smell to work better.
  • The lowering of alcohol strength gives a cooling effect on the palate and heightens the receptiveness of the tongue, particularly in the salty and fruity spectrum.  It also dampens flavours in the spicy and sweet spectrum.

Nevertheless, it’s interesting that there’s scientific evidence of where the dilution limit lies.


Saturday, 1 February 2025

ASSESSING SCOTCH WHISKY

 EVALUATING A SCOTCH WHISKY

PRELIMINARIES

Scotch whisky, a timeless spirit steeped in tradition and complexity, offers a sensory journey like no other. To truly appreciate its depth and variety, one must approach tasting with reverence, enthusiasm and the exercise of patience. Whether you're a seasoned aficionado or a curious newcomer, understanding how to properly taste and evaluate Scotch whisky can transform your experience from mere drinking to an art form.

At the end of the day, the quality of a whisky is reflected in its volume of sales in the common market. Evidently, buyers look for their own pre-defined parameters. Leaving the budget aside, how else does a buyer judge the whisky he wishes to buy? It obviously starts from the marketing campaign, but that is only a pointer. The buyer first looks, by default, at the packaging and presentation of a whisky, whether all necessary details are printed on the label leaving no doubts about its integrity. He then looks at the colour and strength, having bought it, goes on to check it out.

A whisky is reviewed by assessing its appearance (colour), aroma (nose), taste (palate), and finish (aftertaste), locating specific notes, complexity, balance, and overall quality.

The colour is checked for two aspects; whether E150A Caramel colouring additive has been used or whether it shows chill-filtration. The former is easy to assess. The latter requires some time. Good indicators are its strength, generally 46% ABV or more and the appearance of micelles, i.e., the appearance in that glass of whitish strains floating in the whisky after a drop of water is added. The label should state both and prominently so.

But then, how would you check the areas that require the use of your olfactory sensory organs? The nose gives you the aroma, the mouth the taste, the gullet its smoothness and the sensations as it slides down to the stomach its finish. Actually, a discreet burp would reveal the finish and confirm the taste.

You are your own best judge. Very few people may use the same terminology-after all, they are different human beings with differing ideas and actual of aroma, taste and finish. If you described the aromas of a particular whisky to a friend, you may consider them to be legitimate notes, but what do memories, metaphors and variables mean to others? What is the meaning of “a classic Speysider or a classic Islay?” How effective is it to communicate taste by region alone when there are many unique distilleries, variants or finishes out there, each with its trademark USP? Medicinal Laphroaig also has its own variants.

What Exactly is Aroma?

The human olfactory system is a complex network of structures and pathways that enables us to detect and perceive aromas, also known as odours or smells. It is responsible for processing chemical signals from the environment, which are detected by specialised cells called olfactory receptors in the nose. The olfactory system begins with the olfactory mucosa, a thin layer of tissue lining the roof of the nasal cavity, where odour molecules bind to olfactory receptors. These receptors are sensitive to specific shapes and sizes of molecules, allowing us to distinguish between different smells. The bound molecules trigger a signal that is transmitted to the olfactory bulb, a structure located in the forebrain, where it is processed and analysed. The processed information is then sent to other parts of the brain, such as the limbic system, which is responsible for emotions and memory, and the hippocampus, which plays a role in memory formation. The olfactory system is closely linked to our emotional and cognitive centres, which is why smells can evoke strong emotional responses and memories. Additionally, the olfactory system is highly sensitive and can detect extremely small concentrations of odour molecules, making it an essential sense for our everyday experiences.

What Exactly is Taste?

Taste is the perception stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with the sense of smell and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavours of food and other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas, including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.

The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called papillae, which are visible to the naked eye. Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells.

Taste receptors in the mouth sense the five basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and savoriness (also known as umami). Scientific experiments have demonstrated that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to tell different tastes apart when they interact with different molecules or ions. Sweetness, savouriness and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metals or hydrogen ions meet taste buds, respectively.

The basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavour of food in the mouth—other factors include smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by temperature receptors; and "coolness" (such as of menthol) and "hotness" (pungency), by chemesthesis.

In one line, it is the detection of a set of chemicals that define Aroma and Taste.

Now that we know what we are looking for and how we find them, let us proceed to The Tasting Wheel. The Council of Whisky Masters recommends the official Tasting Wheel published by Whisky Magazine, also known as Delmarter's Tasting Wheel.


On this page, I will break down the hard-to-read wheel details, for practical use in daily leisure tastings as well as analytical tastings. The categories and descriptors shown on this page are part of the official vocabulary for all assessors.

The 6 categories starting clockwise from the 12 o’clock position through the wheel show  categories that arise mainly from malting, fermentation and distillation:

Cereal

Fruity

Floral

Peaty

Feinty

Sulphury

The 2 categories in the upper left quadrant of the Tasting Wheel (7&8) cover categories that arise mainly from the wood maturation process of the whisky:

Woody

Winey

Category 1: Cereal Flavours

These flavours are related to malted barley or other grain types.

Cooked Mash: porridge, bran, mash tun draff, cooked, potato skins

Cooked Veg: mashed potato, boiled corn, baked potato

Husky: dried hops, mousy, ale, iron tonic

Malt Extract: malted milk, cattle, cake

Yeasty: pork fat, sausage, gravy, meaty

Category 2: Fruity Flavours

Appealing aspects from the production process, sweet & fragrant.

Citric: oranges, tangerine, kiwi, nectarines, lemon, kinu

Fresh Fruit: apples, pears, peaches, apricot, fruit salad, lychees, custard apple, chikoos

Cooked Fruit: stewed apple, marmalade, jam, candied fruits, barley sugar

Dried Fruit: raisins, figs, dates, prunes, fruit cake, mince pies

Solvent: nail varnish remover, bubble gum, paint, soda, pine essence

Category 3: Floral Flavours

Scents associated to fresh grass and hay, or leaves.

Fragrant: perfume, fabric softener, barber’s shop, coconut, lavender

Green House: geraniums, green tomatoes, florist’s shop

Leafy: green leaves, lawn clippings, pea pods, fir, pine nuts

Hay: mown hay, dry hay, barns, heather, herbal, sage, mulch, mown lawn

Category 4: Peaty Flavours

In Scotch, peat flavours join the malt during the kilning process.

Medicinal: iodine, carbolic, hospitals, lint, tar, diesel oil, sea-weed

Smoky: bonfire, burnt sticks, incense, peat reek

Kippery: sea shells, dried shellfish, oysters, smoked salmon, anchovies

Mossy: moss water, birchy, earthy, turf, hemp rope, fishing nets

Category 5: Feinty Flavours

Feints enter the picture in the end of the spirits run, and they become milder during wood maturation.

Honey: clover honey, heather honey, mead, beeswax,maple syrup polish

Leathery: leather upholstery, libraries, new cowhide, biscuits

Sweat & Plastic: buttermilk, cheese, yeast, shoe polish, old gym shoes, plastic rope

Tobacco: dried tea, fresh tobacco, tobacco ash

Category 6: Sulphury Flavours

Mostly developing during distillation, these problematic flavours are moderated through the fluid interaction with copper.

Coal Gas: spent fireworks, burnt matches, matchbox

Rubbery: pencil eraser, new tires, electric cables, burnt rubber

Sandy: fresh laundry, starch, linen, beach, sulphur

Vegetative: brackish, cabbage water, turnips, stagnant, marsh gas

Category 7: Woody Flavours

Partially directly from the oak, partially related to aging, wood maturation increases complexity and balance, and adds colour.

Toasted: rice pudding, burnt toast, coffee grounds, fennel, liquorice

Vanilla: custard, crème caramel, sponge, madeira cake, toffee

Old Wood: musty, cardboard, cellars, pencils, cork, ink, metallic

New Wood: resinous, cigar box, sandalwood, cedar, ginger, pepper, nutmeg

Category 8: Winey Flavours

If casks were filled with a type of wine before using them for whisky, some of the wine flavours can become part of the whisky profile.

Sherried: white or red wine, sauternes, fino, oloroso, armagnac, madeira, port

Nutty: walnuts, hazel nuts, praline, almonds, marzipan, betel

Chocolate: cream, butter, milk chocolate, cocoa, bitter chocolate

Oily: linseed oil, candlewax, suntan oil, olive oil

The roundness of a Tasting Wheel indicates that flavor categorisation represents a circular continuum:

One type of flavour may blend into the next, often absent of clear borders. When present in moderation, most of the above tasting descriptors are perceived as positive. However, presence of some flavours usually fall into the category “nasty”, e.g., metallic, musty, vegetal, cheesy, very meaty, sulphury.

FROM DESCRIPTION TO EVALUATION

While the above Tasting Wheel discussion assists during the description of whisk(e)y, other categories and criteria are used during a professional and comparative evaluation of the spirit:

Assessing a whisky’s Complexity, Balance and Expressiveness may help the taster to arrive at an overall quality assessment. Further, assessing a sample’s Type and Character—its expression of a regional or traditional style alongside the distillery’s unique characteristics—may provide further insight into the product’s identity and relative positioning in the marketplace.

APPEARANCE AND COLOUR

All Scotch whisky is aged in oak casks and picks up colour from the maturation process. The final colour will depend on the length of the aging, the kind of barrel used, and its prior contents. There are a variety of colour classifications and recognised gradations that are used, though the specific subdivisions identified will vary by author.

Begin your evaluation of a Scotch whisky by first assessing the colour. Pour in a measure of whisky—about an ounce or so. Hold the glass to the light and assess its colour, depth or intensity, and its clarity. New spirit is gin-clear; 20 years in sherry wood may turn the whisky the colour of molasses. Between these poles is a spectrum of hues. The classification shown here recognises seventeen different colour hues.

The first step is to ask yourself, how would you describe the colour of the whisky you are evaluating? How does it appear? Is it clear or hazy? Are there any other distinctive elements of its appearance that are worth noting?

NOSE OR AROMA

The second step in the sensory evaluation of whisky is to identify its principal aromas. This is done largely with the nose and this step in the evaluation process is typically called nosing.

The type of glass used to evaluate or enjoy whisky can have an enormous impact on its sensory appreciation. Fortunately, the choice of glassware is usually under one’s control. The shape and volume of the glass have a distinct effect on taste, both by concentrating the aromas and directing them to your nose, and by directing the Scotch to specific parts of the tongue. A Glencairn or a Riedel whisky glass is recommended. A sherry copita can also be used. Like wine, gently swirl the contents of the glass. The shape of the glass, the volatility of the aromatic compounds in the whisky activated by a gentle swirl will release the whisky’s aroma. Swirling the glass vigorously often results in increasing the amount of evaporated alcohol and will actually desensitise the nose, making it less able to distinguish the aromas present.

What condition is the whisky in? Are there any obvious off notes? Typically these would be feinty such as plastic, sweat, or cheese and would indicate a poor distillation process or a wash contaminated with undesirable yeasts or bacteria. If a bottle has been stored on its side and has had prolonged contact with its cork there could be cork taint resulting in a musty, wet cardboard aroma. Whisky that has been aged in casks that have sulphur taint could exhibit the burned match smell typical of sulphur dioxide. The most commonly encountered fault is oxidation resulting from a bottle that has been opened too long and has had excessive exposure to air. Oxidation will result in the loss of the lighter, more volatile aroma elements in a whisky, resulting in a whisky that seems bland, less intense, and one dimensional.

The second factor to consider is the intensity and characteristics of the aroma. Are the aromas intense or subdued? Lowland malts and whiskies that have undergone triple or quadruple distillation often exhibit lighter, less intense aromas. Heavier highland malts, especially heavily peated whiskies, will typically exhibit stronger, more robust aromas. Does the aroma seem harsh or spirity, as is typical of young whiskies, or does it have the well-integrated rancio aromas of old wood and leather that we associate with extended aging?

The best time for a sensory evaluation is before lunch. Add a little water, especially if there is a nose prickle indicating a high ABV, as this will release additional aromas. Do the aromas change and if so how? Is there a progression of aromas, especially after you add some water, or does the initial aroma just gradually fade away? The addition of water also makes it easier to hold the whisky in your mouth. Swirl the whisky within the mouth so that it reaches all parts of it. Finally, let the whisky trickle down your throat slowly rather than swallowing it in one gulp.

The addition of water to whisky has become a controversial issue of late. Historically, the addition of a small amount of water, typically one half of the volume of the whisky in the glass, was recommended to release some additional aromas in the whisky, a practice sometimes referred to as “releasing the serpent.” The noted whisky critic and author Jim Murray, on the other hand, insists on reviewing whiskies “neat” on the basis that any added water would create a different experience for his readers unless they were able to use the exact water that he did.

The matter is further complicated by findings of research by Rachel Barrie when Bowmore Distillery’s Master Blender, and cocktail and spirits write Camper English, which they believed showed that the addition of water from the same locale where a whisky was made tended to intensify the basic character of that whisky. In other words, the addition of water from Islay will make a heavily peated Islay whisky taste even more peated.

Whyte & Mackay master blender Richard Paterson, renowned for his ability to assess single malts and blends is picky about the glass. It must be tulip shaped with a stem—he likes to hold his glass only by the stem. As for adding water, he believes that 35% ABV is the best ABV for tasting young whiskies, i.e., 12 YO or less. For 15 YO whiskies, he sips it neat. If it bites, he adds water until it mellows. For him, ice is taboo, as it subdues most flavours by reducing their volatility, thereby suppressing its aromatics. For tasting, he takes a small amount of whisky and keeps it on and under the tongue for a few seconds and assesses the flavours, then lets it go down while he savours the flavours for the following 20 to 30 seconds. His tip: always take a second taste. “Different layers will start to open up to you with the second taste,” says Paterson.

I recommend you base your decision on the nose burn felt, if at all, during nosing. Have a small sip first, add five to six drops of water, a gentle swirl, pause a minute and sip again. The water is free H2O. It will react with free molecules of volatile compounds floating in the glass and add another flavour or two.  

PALATE: TASTE, MOUTH FEEL, AND FINISH

The third step consists of the primary tastes associated with the whisky and its body or mouth feel. In reality what we call taste is a combination of the five primary tastes as well as aromas that we perceive while the whisky is in our mouth and that we add to the taste profile.

Many of the flavours that we associate with “taste” are in actuality aromas. These are perceived by the olfactory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. This organ is a mass of epithelial tissue located on the roof of the nasal cavity about three inches above and behind the nostril and is directly responsible for detecting odours.

When you have a cold, your nose loses much of its ability to distinguish aromas. This is why food doesn’t taste as appetising when your nose is congested. There are only 9,000 taste buds on the surface of the tongue, the roof of mouth, and in the throat. The human nose, on the other hand, has millions of epithelial cells and can detect more than ten thousand aromas.

TASTE

There are five primary tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami.

The first four tastes are straightforward and are familiar to most everyone, although it should be noted that individual sensitivity to each of those tastes can vary widely. Umami, the fifth taste, is an Indian word that is typically translated as savoury. It represents the taste of glutamate. The tongue has specialised taste cells, or specific taste sensors, for each of these tastes. These sensors, or taste buds, are located throughout the mouth and throat but are especially concentrated in particular areas of the tongue.

The first tastes discerned by the mouth are sweet and salty. The taste receptors for these two tastes are particularly concentrated at the tip of the tongue. The receptors for sour are located about halfway up the tongue on either side, while the receptors for bitter are at the back of the tongue. A few taste buds for Umami are in the central half of the tongue but most are at the back of the mouth and in the upper throat. Paradoxically, the centre of the tongue has very few  taste buds.

Order of Taste

Salt, the primary cooking flavour, is first tasted at a concentration of about 0.025 percent. It is a strong flavor stimulant that can “round off” sweetness. Sugar is tasted at around 0.5 percent sucrose concentration and is associated with warm and pleasant feelings. Sour is the taste that detects acidity. It will register at a concentration of 0.000135 percent. Bitter is tasted at a minuscule 0.00005 percent concentration. It is the slowest taste to register, taking up to ten seconds or more.

Bitter becomes enticing to the palate as we age and actually stimulates appetite. Umami records the presence of glutamate and indicates the presence of amino acids. It is tasted through monosodium glutamate (MSG), first extracted from soup seasoning made from seaweed. MSG is discerned at 0.03 percent concentration and enhances the flavour of meats. The taste of glutamate is often described as that of asparagus.

MOUTH FEEL

Mouth feel is also referred to as body. It is a measure of weight, richness, or viscosity of the whisky when it is in one’s mouth. Sugar, flavour compounds and alcohol will add to the sensation of “body.” Fusil alcohols, while a fault in excessive quantities, can, in small amounts, create a sensation of richness and greater viscosity. Tannins extracted from wood will have a similar effect. Whiskies that have been aged will typically exhibit more body than a young whisky. In older whiskies the alcohol is better integrated with the flavour components and this also adds to the sensation of a heavier mouth feel.

FINISH

As the whisky is swirled around in one’s mouth there are additional “flavour components” that are being released. These too are simply additional aromas that are being perceived by the taster. The finish, or length, refers to the length of time that these additional aromas linger in the mouth after the whisky has been swallowed. A long, lingering finish is typically associated with an older, well-aged, well-integrated whisky, and is considered a sign of quality. Although even a young whisky can exhibit a lingering finish. Anything peaty will often exhibit a long finish regardless of the age. Is the finish long or short? Are the flavours in balance? Is the finish excessively spirity and harsh? Do you experience a complex succession of multiple flavours.

Based on this threefold evaluation, a reviewer can make a determination of quality. Is it faulty, poor, acceptable, good, very good, or outstanding? How is the balance, length, and complexity? Is it a good example of its type? Whiskies where one particular flavour component dominates can make a malt seem boring and one-dimensional and is usually considered a fault, on the other hand if you are evaluating “peat monsters”, that intensity of flavour is precisely what you are searching for. 

THE ROLE OF OAK CASKS

The major constituents of oak are the three building blocks of all woody plants - cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin - plus tannins and small amounts of lipids (oils, fats and waxes). An exception, which applies mainly to American white oak, is the oak lactones. The small amounts of lipids give rise during the coopering process to oak lactones. These have a profound effect upon flavour.

When considering oak’s influence on wines and spirits during maturation, it is important to remember that oak barrels, chips or tank staves do not consist of oak as such, but as oak which has been modified by seasoning and heat treatments - toasting or charring.

Approximate composition of American and European oaks

Species

%    Cellulose

% Hemicellulose

%  Lignin

%  Extractives

European oak

38

29

25 4.

4 0

English oak

39-42

19-26

25-34

3.8-6.1

American oak

44

24

24

5.4

 

1.  Cellulose : Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer on Earth and consists of linear chains of glucose units. It plays no part in maturation other than to help hold the wood together. However, there is some evidence that it can play a role in bacterial action in wine maturation, but not whisky maturation.

2.  Hemicellulose : Hemicellulose is a two-dimensional polymer which consists of several simple sugars. Whereas cellulose consists purely of glucose sugar units, hemicellulose can be broken down into several simple sugars. These include glucose, xylose, mannose, rhamnose, arabinose and galactose. Although two-dimensional in structure compared to the single dimensional chain-like structure of cellullose, hemicellulose is less abundant and less stable. Upon heating it breaks down into constituent sugars and these rapidly break down further into caramelization products. This aspect of toasting and charring of oak wood is extremely complex but is clearly of great importance in the development of toasty flavors. The breakdown of hemicellulose by heat begins around 140°C (284°F) and stops at 220°C (430°F).

Toasting yields furfural, hydroxymethyl furfural, maltol, cyclotene and a host of other sugar condensation products en route to the highly condensed structures which give the brown color of caramel. Acetic acid and methyl alcohol are also formed. Thus the breakdown of hemicellulose yields wood sugars which add to the body of the matured product, toasty flavors and color. With the exception of furfural these compounds have sweet-associated burnt sugar or caramelized aromas and flavors. In addition there are numerous other compounds released during toasting which have similar characteristics.

3. Lignin : Lignin is a three-dimensional polymer. Oak lignin - i.e., hardwood lignin - consists of two building blocks, the guaiacyl and syringyl structures. In matured drinks these two building blocks give rise to two groups of compounds. These are coniferaldehyde, vanillin and vanillic acid in one group and sinapaldehyde, syringaldehyde and syringic acid from the syringyl structure in the other. The structure and aroma detection thresholds of these compounds (in 20% alcohol : water) reveal that the application of relatively gentle heat or mild acid attack releases the compounds listed above, collectively known as phenolic aldehydes. But when extra heat is applied the lignin complex can break down into much simpler structures - the steam volatile phenols. These are responsible for the smoky aroma and flavors often found after barrel maturation.

Oak tannins are described as hydrolysable because they can be broken down into simpler parts in the presence of water and acidity. Ellagitannins are formed when glucose combines with ellagic and sometimes gallic acid. Resulting compounds are both astringent and bitter and they are clearly unattractive to potential distillers. It is a major part of the process of seasoning and toasting (or charring) to break down the tannins and render them more acceptable. At the same time they also play an essential role in maturation by enabling oxidation and the creation of a delicate fragrance in spirits. Three steps are involved in this mechanism. The first two are common to both wines and spirits. The third is largely restricted to spirits.

In Step 1, the wood tannin reacts with oxygen in the presence of a transition metal - e.g., iron, copper or manganese - to release activated oxygen which can be represented by hydrogen peroxide. In Step 2 the activated oxygen is able to oxidise alcohol to acetaldehyde. In the third step more alcohol combines with the acetaldehyde from Step 2 and creates a new compound in the drink. This is diethylacetal, often just called acetal. This compound has a strongly ethereal influence on the product giving it delicacy and top-note. Without this step matured spirits are dull and flat.